Malcolm Hunter's Landmark Dissertation
In 1995 Malcolm Hunter published his landmark work on Nomadic Pastoralists. With his permission we will publish the full dissertation here. Below is the abstract for his work. May God bless the nomadic peoples of the world.
APPROPRIATE DEVELOPMENT FOR NOMADIC PASTORALISTS
A Study of the Waso Borana of Northern Kenya Illustrating the Value and Meaning of a Holistic Understanding of Development Amongst Nomadic Peoples.
A Study of the Waso Borana of Northern Kenya Illustrating the Value and Meaning of a Holistic Understanding of Development Amongst Nomadic Peoples.
This study focuses on what is meant by appropriate development for nomadic pastoralists. It is based on the perception that those societies which traditionally live in arid and semi-arid lands with their main livelihood derived from herding animals, have their own objectives and a wealth of indigenous knowledge, both of which must be taken into account when development plans are being made.
This premise forms the basis of the method used in conducting the field research, depending chiefly on responses of a semi-nomadic group of pastoralists to the various development projects and interventions which had been attempted on, for and around them. The southern Borana of Kenya were chosen as a case study as they have been the target group for the widest range of development efforts.
The reasons for this wide diversity of interventions are discussed, including the history and geography of the Borana in Kenya, as these are important in understanding the recorded responses and possible options for their development as perceived by them to be appropriate.
Another distinctive feature of this study is that it addresses the need for inclusion of the spiritual values of nomadic pastoralists when planning with them for development which will be appropriate and therefore attractive to them. It will seek to show the need for a broader understanding of holistic or transformational development by looking at all the components or interventions used amongst the Waso Borana. A comparison of the relative appeal of Islam and Roman Catholic missionary work is made to show their relevance to nomadic pastoralists like the Waso Borana to retain their traditional life style. This perception will lead to a consideration of what is needed for a more appropriate and attractive presentation of Christianity, including the adaptation of the Christian Church to be an essential part of holistic development which is most appropriate to nomadic pastoralists.
Chapter one is primarily concerned with definitions and descriptions of various forms of nomadic pastoralism. It will be shown that pastoralists can be found at any point on a continuum from the most sedentary agro-pastoralists to the most mobile nomadic pastoralists who depend entirely on utilizing the resource of spatial mobility to maintain their herds and their livelihood. This chapter also briefly reviews the causes and origins of nomadic pastoralism and the evolution of the definition and understanding of this subject in recent years.
The particular problems faced by nomadic pastoralists are considered with an assessment of some of the coping mechanisms and survival strategies they can use to minimize losses by taking risks. This leads to a discussion of some of the main characteristics and strengths demonstrated by nomadic pastoralists, showing them to be supremely opportunistic and tenacious in their determination to maintain values which are important to them.
Chapter two looks at what is meant by appropriate development, - considering examples of interventions that have been attempted for nomadic pastoralists. Reasons for the failure of most of these development programmes are given as well as an assessment of the present situation. The causes of misunderstanding and other misconceptions of the meaning of development are reviewed. The problem of defining and therefore in counting those who can be considered in the pastoral sector are considered as well as a review of some of the problems faced by nomadic pastoralists. This chapter concludes by introducing one of the distinctive features of this study - that development to be appropriate for nomadic pastoralists must take into account their spiritual world.
Chapter three outlines the research methodology used in this study, beginning with a review of rural development appraisal methods and their suitability for application in nomadic pastoral societies. Adaptations are suggested for semi-nomadic situations using semi-sedentary research methods based on established relationships to generate a productive interview environment. The value of long term personal observation in developing the subject matter of the questionnaire to be used is discussed, as well as the values of group interviews in pastoral societies where individual responses are not usually to be expected.
Chapter four covers the history and geography of the Borana in Kenya, including a summary of the demographics of the area targetted for this case study in - Merti and Garba Tula divisions of Isiolo district. The history of the neighbouring pastoralist ethnic groups is outlined briefly in so far as it effects the Borana and their movement southwards. Greater attention is given to the impact of the larger national and international powers from Ethiopia in the north and the British Colonial Government of Kenya in the south between which the Borana were caught. The effect of drawing the border between those two powers is noted. The devastating results of the shifta wars that followed Kenyan Independence in 1963 are extensively reported as these continue to this day to have the greatest residual effect on Borana society and economy. The problem of communications in Eastern Isiolo with its bizarre political geography and unusable bridge is reported as a striking example of inappropriate development. The chapter concludes with a brief history of Christian witness amongst the Waso Borana.
Chapter five presents the observations made during the field research on the subject matter in the questionnaire relating to the Borana people and their relationship with their animals. This begins with a review of the biographical data provided by the individuals chosen as representatives of their particular communities.
The major issues of range management and water use are addressed with a brief analysis of losses and recoveries in recent years. Considerable attention is paid to the views of the Borana herd owners about their traditional grazing lands and their associated water sources, as this was the subject which was clearly of the greatest importance to them. Several examples are given of the way risks are assessed and decisions made when the herds are faced with the inevitability of drought. Stocking levels and the question of over-grazing are discussed, followed by the related subject of marketing options, comparing the views of government policy makers with the traditional values of nomadic pastoralists. The importance of veterinarian services is assessed before examining the Borana experience of re-stocking programmes.
Chapter six presents the data derived from the questionnaire and interviews on subjects not relating to livestock - i.e. medical and veterinary services, education, cultivation and other alternative economic options. The chapter begins with a discussion of the effects of recent government policies on the Borana and their constant complaint of the lack of official action in maintaining vital security, resulting in over-concentration of people, de-forestation on some areas, with under-grazing and loss of good pasture to coarse and unpalatable vegetation in other areas where security is lacking. The miraa trade and its social and economic costs are addressed followed by a review of the religious issues, Islam, traditional religion and Christianity with their meaning to the Borana. Further details of the relevance and significance of Christianity are given, in particular the effect of the Roman Catholic Mission at Merti.
Chapter seven presents the conclusions and recommendations deriving from the findings of this study for aspects of development excluding religious issues. It begins with an examination of the subject identified by the Borana as the major impediment to any development plans by asking the question why is security such a major problem for pastoralists. This is addressed in the context of their attitude towards and relationship with various levels of government administration which they believe is responsible for providing security since it is the government that does not allow them to have weapons to defend themselves. Recommendations are made to address this strongly felt need and for each of the other development interventions identified as being appropriate for the Waso Borana, viz. range management, human and animal medical services, education, cultivation and other alternative livelihood options.
The problems of the miraa trade are reviewed even though specific recommendations to counter the negative effects on Borana society and their development are difficult to suggest. A more positive conclusion is reached on the subject of animal restocking for the Borana and possibly for other nomadic and semi nomadic pastoralists. One other recommendation is suggested for income generation for the Waso Borana, viz. free range ostrich farming through community controlled harvesting of fertile eggs
Chapter eight brings together the main conclusions of this study on religious issues, principally the need to include spiritual values in appropriate development. It seeks to answer the question "Why is Christianity relevant to pastoralists and what is its relationship to appropriate development - holistic and transformational.
After review of the writings of early researchers amongst pastoralists, it goes on to look at some current examples of Christian based development work amongst nomadic pastoralists and their effectiveness. Perceptions gained from these models are used to address the issue of what sort of transformed Christian community, i.e. the church, will be most appropriate and attractive to nomadic pastoralists. This chapter concludes with a brief summary of the role and responsibility of the Church towards nomadic pastoralists in fulfilling the ultimate agenda of history.
This premise forms the basis of the method used in conducting the field research, depending chiefly on responses of a semi-nomadic group of pastoralists to the various development projects and interventions which had been attempted on, for and around them. The southern Borana of Kenya were chosen as a case study as they have been the target group for the widest range of development efforts.
The reasons for this wide diversity of interventions are discussed, including the history and geography of the Borana in Kenya, as these are important in understanding the recorded responses and possible options for their development as perceived by them to be appropriate.
Another distinctive feature of this study is that it addresses the need for inclusion of the spiritual values of nomadic pastoralists when planning with them for development which will be appropriate and therefore attractive to them. It will seek to show the need for a broader understanding of holistic or transformational development by looking at all the components or interventions used amongst the Waso Borana. A comparison of the relative appeal of Islam and Roman Catholic missionary work is made to show their relevance to nomadic pastoralists like the Waso Borana to retain their traditional life style. This perception will lead to a consideration of what is needed for a more appropriate and attractive presentation of Christianity, including the adaptation of the Christian Church to be an essential part of holistic development which is most appropriate to nomadic pastoralists.
Chapter one is primarily concerned with definitions and descriptions of various forms of nomadic pastoralism. It will be shown that pastoralists can be found at any point on a continuum from the most sedentary agro-pastoralists to the most mobile nomadic pastoralists who depend entirely on utilizing the resource of spatial mobility to maintain their herds and their livelihood. This chapter also briefly reviews the causes and origins of nomadic pastoralism and the evolution of the definition and understanding of this subject in recent years.
The particular problems faced by nomadic pastoralists are considered with an assessment of some of the coping mechanisms and survival strategies they can use to minimize losses by taking risks. This leads to a discussion of some of the main characteristics and strengths demonstrated by nomadic pastoralists, showing them to be supremely opportunistic and tenacious in their determination to maintain values which are important to them.
Chapter two looks at what is meant by appropriate development, - considering examples of interventions that have been attempted for nomadic pastoralists. Reasons for the failure of most of these development programmes are given as well as an assessment of the present situation. The causes of misunderstanding and other misconceptions of the meaning of development are reviewed. The problem of defining and therefore in counting those who can be considered in the pastoral sector are considered as well as a review of some of the problems faced by nomadic pastoralists. This chapter concludes by introducing one of the distinctive features of this study - that development to be appropriate for nomadic pastoralists must take into account their spiritual world.
Chapter three outlines the research methodology used in this study, beginning with a review of rural development appraisal methods and their suitability for application in nomadic pastoral societies. Adaptations are suggested for semi-nomadic situations using semi-sedentary research methods based on established relationships to generate a productive interview environment. The value of long term personal observation in developing the subject matter of the questionnaire to be used is discussed, as well as the values of group interviews in pastoral societies where individual responses are not usually to be expected.
Chapter four covers the history and geography of the Borana in Kenya, including a summary of the demographics of the area targetted for this case study in - Merti and Garba Tula divisions of Isiolo district. The history of the neighbouring pastoralist ethnic groups is outlined briefly in so far as it effects the Borana and their movement southwards. Greater attention is given to the impact of the larger national and international powers from Ethiopia in the north and the British Colonial Government of Kenya in the south between which the Borana were caught. The effect of drawing the border between those two powers is noted. The devastating results of the shifta wars that followed Kenyan Independence in 1963 are extensively reported as these continue to this day to have the greatest residual effect on Borana society and economy. The problem of communications in Eastern Isiolo with its bizarre political geography and unusable bridge is reported as a striking example of inappropriate development. The chapter concludes with a brief history of Christian witness amongst the Waso Borana.
Chapter five presents the observations made during the field research on the subject matter in the questionnaire relating to the Borana people and their relationship with their animals. This begins with a review of the biographical data provided by the individuals chosen as representatives of their particular communities.
The major issues of range management and water use are addressed with a brief analysis of losses and recoveries in recent years. Considerable attention is paid to the views of the Borana herd owners about their traditional grazing lands and their associated water sources, as this was the subject which was clearly of the greatest importance to them. Several examples are given of the way risks are assessed and decisions made when the herds are faced with the inevitability of drought. Stocking levels and the question of over-grazing are discussed, followed by the related subject of marketing options, comparing the views of government policy makers with the traditional values of nomadic pastoralists. The importance of veterinarian services is assessed before examining the Borana experience of re-stocking programmes.
Chapter six presents the data derived from the questionnaire and interviews on subjects not relating to livestock - i.e. medical and veterinary services, education, cultivation and other alternative economic options. The chapter begins with a discussion of the effects of recent government policies on the Borana and their constant complaint of the lack of official action in maintaining vital security, resulting in over-concentration of people, de-forestation on some areas, with under-grazing and loss of good pasture to coarse and unpalatable vegetation in other areas where security is lacking. The miraa trade and its social and economic costs are addressed followed by a review of the religious issues, Islam, traditional religion and Christianity with their meaning to the Borana. Further details of the relevance and significance of Christianity are given, in particular the effect of the Roman Catholic Mission at Merti.
Chapter seven presents the conclusions and recommendations deriving from the findings of this study for aspects of development excluding religious issues. It begins with an examination of the subject identified by the Borana as the major impediment to any development plans by asking the question why is security such a major problem for pastoralists. This is addressed in the context of their attitude towards and relationship with various levels of government administration which they believe is responsible for providing security since it is the government that does not allow them to have weapons to defend themselves. Recommendations are made to address this strongly felt need and for each of the other development interventions identified as being appropriate for the Waso Borana, viz. range management, human and animal medical services, education, cultivation and other alternative livelihood options.
The problems of the miraa trade are reviewed even though specific recommendations to counter the negative effects on Borana society and their development are difficult to suggest. A more positive conclusion is reached on the subject of animal restocking for the Borana and possibly for other nomadic and semi nomadic pastoralists. One other recommendation is suggested for income generation for the Waso Borana, viz. free range ostrich farming through community controlled harvesting of fertile eggs
Chapter eight brings together the main conclusions of this study on religious issues, principally the need to include spiritual values in appropriate development. It seeks to answer the question "Why is Christianity relevant to pastoralists and what is its relationship to appropriate development - holistic and transformational.
After review of the writings of early researchers amongst pastoralists, it goes on to look at some current examples of Christian based development work amongst nomadic pastoralists and their effectiveness. Perceptions gained from these models are used to address the issue of what sort of transformed Christian community, i.e. the church, will be most appropriate and attractive to nomadic pastoralists. This chapter concludes with a brief summary of the role and responsibility of the Church towards nomadic pastoralists in fulfilling the ultimate agenda of history.